Rubber Farming and Production

Rubber is a material having varied industrial, technological and domestic uses. It has high export potentials and is rated as one of the most profitable agri-industrial ventures in the country.' The prospects of the natural rubber industry in the Philippines can be gauged by the domestic and export market requirements, Despite the threat of synthetic rubber, the market for natural rubber still remains healthy and attractive due to an ever increasing demand for rubber products. Added to this , is the unique technical properties of natural rubber making @ suitable for varied purposes and well favored compared to synthetic rubber. Therefore, the natural rubber industry will continue to be of greater importance.

CLIMATE, SOIL AND CLONE SELECTION

In general, rubber is grown within the geographical zones lying 10 degrees to 15 degrees on ether side of the equator. Warm humid climate with temperatures ranging from 20 to 35 degrees centigrade is required and an annual rainfall pattern that is fairly distributed and without morning rains is best needed by the crop.

Rubber is suitable in a wide range of soil types provided that drainage, soil reaction and soil depth are not limiting. Slightly rolling lands with deep surface soil are ideal for rubber growing. Rubber can be planted in steep slopes provided that contour planting is observed. Well-drained flat or level lands maybe good also for rubber. Soils planted to rubber in the Philippines is moderately to slightly acidic (pH ranging from 4.5 to 6.5) on the standard scale.

Clone selection should be given importance in order to have a successful rubber plantation. Optimum yields cannot be attained even with a favorable environment I the clone used is not of high yielding variety.

In most plantations, RRIM 600 occupies at least 70% of the area. The remaining 30% is planted to any of the following: PB 330, RRIM 712, RRIM 703 and PB 235.

NURSERY MANAGEMENT

Raise seedlings in nurseries for almost a year before transplanting to the field. This technique is more economical and convenient than direct planting.

Prepare germination beds. The length depends on the number of seeds to be sown. The width should be about one (1) meter for convenience in cultivation. Use fine river sand as germinating medium for minimum root damage when the seedlings are pulled out prior to transplanting. Aged sawdust or dried cogon can also be used.

About 2, 000 seeds can be sown per square meter of germination bed. Overcrowding of seeds can cause distortion of the roots which may cause difficulty during pricking. The seeds are closely laid on the surface with the top of the seeds on the level with the surface of the medium. They start to germinate in one week time. Continue watering until all viable seeds have germinated. Generally, survival rate from seeds to seedlings ranges from 80% to 90%.

During the months of August to October, rubber seedlings can be easily obtained from fresh, large, heavy and shiny seeds. For rootstocks, seeds of Tjir 1 are ideal because of the vigorous seedlings produced. Other clones are recommended for use except for PB-86 which produces albino seedlings.

Germination in seedbeds shall be done. It takes seven (7) days before transferring them to the polybag nursery, if green budding is going to be employed or in the ground seedlings nursery for brown budding. In which, after six (6) months, the seedlings are to be budded for 35 days and bagged afterwards. After a period of 4-6 months in the polybag nursery, the seedlings can be planted to the field.

Fertilize the seedlings with balanced fertilizer mixtures starting on the first month after planting of pre-germinated seedlings. Apply 10-15 grams per seedling or one teaspoon per application of NPK fertilizer mixtures, in two or three split dosages. Broadcast the fertilizer about 10cm away from the base of the plant.

PLANTATION ESTABLISHMENT / DEVELOPMENT

The maintenance program of the existing production area will basically involve the following major activities: fertilization, disease and pest control, ring weeding, cogon wiping and lining. Said maintenance program will give due consideration to: attainment of the highest possible yields, minimization of the loss/destruction of trees due to pests and/or diseases, and proper development of tree girth size.

For areas to be developed yet, the following practices shall be followed:

LAND PREPARATION

Plow and harrow the field which was previously planted with annual crops. If cultivation is needed, a tractor or an animal-drawn plow can be used. Plowing twice in cross direction during summer to expose and dry the rhizomes of weeds.
PLANTING DISTANCE

The avenue/hedge system is most suitable for hilly areas (10 m x 2 m). The rectangular or square method (4 m x 5 m) is recommended for flat or slightly undulating areas. For cash cropping and intercropping purpose, 2 m x 10 m or 2 m x 3 m x 21 m are recommended.

CONTOUR LINING/TERRACING

For hilly lands, the practice of contour lining/terracing is recommended. To minimize soil erosion, cutting of planting terraces is necessary. Cut the soil 20 centimeters in front of the line of the planting row back into the hillside to give a width of 40 to 150 centimeters with a backward inclination from the horizontal of 2.5 centimeters per 30 centimeters.

HOLING

A few weeks before transplanting, prepare the holes to condition the soil for quick growth of young shoots. The size of the hole depends on the nature of the soil and the planting materials to be used. In most cases, around 60 centimeters is being practice. Back filling is done at about 5 centimeters above the ground level.

PLANTING

Budded planting materials with at least two fully developed leaf whorls are recommended for field planting. In planting, remove carefully the bottom of the polybag using a sharp knife before placing the planting material in the hole. Make a vertical cut on the polybag starting from the bottom up to its upper surface. Fill the hole with loose soil until 3/4 full before pulling out totally the polybag. Tamper the soil around lightly with a wooden pole until about 2 inches of the ground surface is fully covered.

COVER CRIO ESTABLISHMENT

The three most common cover crops are Pueraria, Calopogonium and Centrosema. These are established either before or after field planting of rubber.

During the unproductive period, small growers can grow cashcrops. These can be planted between the rows of rubber to generate supplementary income such as cereals, legumes, vegetables and selected perennial crops.

REPLANTING

Replace vacant or dead hills with planting materials of similar age with that of the original stand for uniformity.

THINNING

This should be done during the third year to eliminate the less vigorous trees. This is the time when the branches and shoots start to close in.

FERTILIZATION

To produce high quality rubber, supply the crop with a balanced amount of essential nutrients, Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P205), Potassium (K20) and Magnesium (Mg). Nitrogen is commonly needed during seedling stage. This nutrient is essential for cell production for an increased growth and development of vegetative parts. Phosphorous is essential for cell division and development of growing tissues. Potassium (K) nutrients are needed especially by mature rubber trees. Bark regeneration is encouraged for a positive response to latex yield. For latex flow stability, Magnesium (Mg) nutrients are required.

For young rubber trees, (3 to 12 months after transplanting), the use of 65 grams of complete (14-14-14) fertilizer per tree is recommended. During the second year, 125 grams of 14-14-14 applied every six months is sufficient. From third year onward, higher rates can be applied yearly depending on the needs of the tree.

Fertilizer is applied on the soil layer within the 7.5 centimeters depth range. Distance from the base may range from 15 to 40 centimeters depending on the age and size of the tree.

Average fertilizer recommendation per tree are as follows: Nitrogen - 40 grams; Phosphorous 40 grams; and Potassium-30 to 135 grams.

PRUNNING

Start prunning the side branches that developed within the height of 2.75 meters above the point of scion stock union three weeks after planting until before tapping.
PESTS AND ITS CONTROL

Control of termites, root-feeding grubs and bark borers can be done through the use of recommended insecticides by pouring the diluted solution in the infested area. Sucking insects such as mealy bugs and aphids on the other hand, are controlled by spraying with soap emulsion especially if the infestation is heavy and spreading.

Rats and wild pigs destroying germinating seedlings and young plants can be controlled by baiting, trapping, hunting or by setting a barbed wire fence with wire netting about one meter high.

DISEASES AND ITS CONTROL

Diseases, particularly those caused by fungi, may infect rubber from seedling stage to maturity. Rubber diseases and their control are as follows:

1. Bird's Eye Spot (Helminthosporium hevea) Control: weekly spraying of Dithane M-45 (10% solution of 6 tbsp/4 gal knapsack sprayer) on fully expanded leaves.

2. Collectotrichum Leaf Disease and Anthracnose (Collectotrichum gloeosporoides) Control: spraying the expanding leaves with Vitigran Blue, Daconil, or Cupravit at the rate of O.2% or 2. a.i. per lt. of water (IO-Il Tbsp/4gal.) at least 4 rounds at weekly intervals.

3. Pink Disease (Corticium salmonicolor) Control: Bordeaux mixture (Lime, 0.36 kg; copper sulfate, 0.18 kg. or 0.4 lb., water, 15 lt. or 4 gal.) is sprayed on the infected parts but not advisable for trees in tapping.

4. White root Disease (Rigidoporus lignosos) Control: Regular inspection of tree. Those with foliar symptoms should be dried up and burned. Adjacent trees should be treated by carefully removing the earth from around the collar and the first 15 cm of the lateral roots. Cut and burn any infected wood. Application of Fomac 2 is also advised.

5. Stem Bleeding - There is no known control measure.

6. Black Stripe (Phytophthora palmivora) Control: Regular application of Aliette, provided the disease is detected early enough. For newly established diseases, a mixture of 10 gms per lt. of water at 20 ml per tree is applied every four days of tapping. For serious infection, a mixture of 20 gms per liter of water is used.

Apply fungicide by brushing with a 5-cm paint, brush to cover the entire infected area above the tapping cut and a strip just below the cut. Generally, a band 5-10 cm above and 2.5-5 cm below the cut is satisfactory.

7. Moldy Rot (Caratcystis fimbriata) Control: Moldy rot is spread by tapping knives or tappers' clothing. As a preventive measure, disinfect tapping knives after each tapping in the infected area by immersion in a fungicidal solution. The most effective chemical to control moldy rot is Benlate (Benomyl) at O.5% (5-6 tbsp. per 4 gal) applied four times at weekly intervals.

8. Brown Bast = Flow of latex in diseased bark finally stops due to coagulation of latex within the vessels. This cannot be controlled when coagulation has set in. Occurrence of brown bast can be prevented through proper tapping techniques and management.

TAPPING SYSTEMS AND BARK MANAGEMENT

In tapping, a thin shaving of bark is removed from the lower surface of the grove to open the latex vessels in the bark. The barks are blocked by plugs of coagulated latex The latex vessels are concentrated in the soft bark and the innermost layer of the hard bark, In tapping , therefore, the bark should be removed as close as possible to the cambium to serve the greatest number of latex-bearing vessels. However, the cambium should not be damaged so as not to hinder future tapping operations. The following tools are needed in tapping rubber trees: tapping knife, collection cup, vine cup holder and metal spout, a container for coagulant or anti-coagulant, and a basket for scraps.

Normal tapping system for rubber has an intensity of 100%. This is the s/2.d/2 tapping system. Intensive tapping has a tapping intensity of more than 100%. Since tapping intensity depends on the length of the tapping cut and the frequency of tapping, intensive tapping involves either an increase in the length of the tapping cut or tapping frequency or both. This system can be applied in old trees which are to be replanted within 10 years.

The system of double-half circumference cut to form a V-cut tapped once in two days is applicable on trees which are to be felled within two to three years. For areas to be replanted within a year, the multiple cut system or slaughter tapping method is recommended

The recommended standards for opening a rubber plantation for tapping are:

I. At least 7O% of the trees has reached the standard girth.

2. For hall circumference alternate tapping (s/2.d/2; half spiral, tapped every second day), trees should have attained a girth of at least 50 cm at 150 centimeters from the union. The girth is measured at the height of the lower end of the opening cut on the first panel.

A cut from "high left" to "low right" cuts a greater number of latex vessels per unit length of tapping cut than if the cut is made from "high right " to "low left ". For budded trees with thin bark, tapping is cut at an angle of 30 degrees to the horizontal. Normally, tapping is done over a period of two to three days. The oxidation of latex in the tree is governed by transpiration, hence tapping should be done early in the morning when transpiration is low to obtain high yield.

COLLECTING SYSTEM

Contamination of rubber latex must be avoided in order to maintain absolute cleanliness during tapping and collection of latex. Latex should be collected three hours after tapping the last tree in a block and placed in a clean plastic pail because the longer it stays in the cup, the higher the number of microorganisms that are introduced from the dirt and bark particles present in the tapping cut, spout. and collection cup. Containers made of plastic or non-corrosive metals should be used for this purpose. They should be cleaned and thoroughly washed after each use. If empty oil or kerosene cans are used, they should be painted with Epicote to prevent rusting. Containers used for latex collection should never be used for other purposes.

YIELD STIMULATION

Ethrel is the stimulant which is usually used in rubber due to its availability and satisfactory effect on rubber trees. Application can be done every two (2) months with a rest period of two (2) months coinciding with the wintering of trees. The stimulant is applied at a width of about 2.5 cm immediately below the tapping cut. This is usually done by slightly scrapping a strip of bark wider enough to be consumed in two months, e.g. 4 cm (I 1/2 inches) on alternate daily tapping.

The use of ethrel may necessitate reduction in tapping frequency, e.g. s/2, d/3, 67% half spiral every third day and s/2, d/4, 50% half spiral every fourth day. Application of complete fertilizer of high potash content is recommended at least once a year since ethrel stimulation results in excessive drainage of essential nutrients due to increased latex yield. Application rate must be based on yearly soil/leaf analyses.

Technology-advanced plantations advocate start of the ethrel application commencing from the eleventh year of tapping to avoid a faster decline in yields.

PRODUCTION PROCESS

Pre-Coagulation and Anti-Coagulants

Normal pre-coagulation occurs if collection and transportation are delayed. Abnormal pre-coagulation occurs during rainy days, wintering period and in newly opened young trees and high cut tapping. Normal pre-coagulation can be avoided or minimized by the addition of anti-coagu-lants such as ammonia and sodium sulfite
.
Pre-coagulation is manifested by lumps in latex cups. Clots in the latex, coagulation during transport and fermentation bubbles in the co-agulum.

Dilution, Standardization and Bulking

The separation of fine sand particles and dirt from field latex by straining alone is not practical due to the high viscosity of the latex. To facilitate separation of fine sand and dirt, the fluidity of latex must be increased. This is done by diluting it with water. Allowing the diluted latex to stand in property constructed tanks causes' sand and other fine particles to settle.

Since the quality of field latex varies considerably from field to field, the latex in a plantation must be brought daily to a certain standard by diluting the latex to reduce the dry rubber content (DRC). Generally, a 1: I ratio of water to field latex is used. The bulking tanks which are usually cylindrical with a conical bottom should have a drain tap below the level of the outlet to the coagulating tanks. Diluted latex settles in IO to 30 minutes. The latex flows from the opened outlet cock into a container if coagulation is done in pans or into a gutter which leads to the coagulating tanks. In plantations where there are no facilities for bulking and settling, it is essential to run diluted latex through a sieve to remove the line dirt particles and pre-coagulated lumps. Unless there is pre-coagulation, there is usually no need to sieve if bulking and settling are done properly.

COAGULATION

To bring the latex into a state suitable for coagulation, dilution is essential. Coagulation of the latex is carried out in aluminum coagulating tanks or wooden tanks lined with aluminum. Coagulating tanks are convenient for large plantations. The most commonly used tanks are 3 meters long, about 90 centimeters wide and 35 to 45 centimeters deep. it is important to provide slope on the bottom of the tank (l cm per 60 cm length) towards the drain to facilitate the flow of serum and wash water. Normally, the tanks are designed to contain 75-90 partitions. Both separate sheeting tanks which can produce separate 75 to 90 globe of coagulum and continuous tanks which can produce long continuous sheets are used.

For small plantations, rectangular aluminum pans having a capacity of 4.5 liters or halved kerosene cans may be used. Min-coagulating tanks capable of holding 36 liters of diluted latex to produce 8 sheets can also be used.

Although many substances can be used for coagulation of latex, only acetic and formic acids can be used as they are the only recognized standard coagulants. In practice, the acid required is computed and the solution is prepared by diluting it with water at the rate of 10 milliliter acid to one Liter.

While the acid is added, the latex should be stirred with aluminum or wooden paddles. Stirring should be done carefully to avoid internal bubbles and reduce internal surface foam to a minimum. A considerable amount of foam is produced with the mixing of diluted acid and latex. This should be removed with a. smooth wooden board or aluminum skinner to avoid the surface pitting of the sheet when the coagulum is rolled. The tanks or pans are then left as such without disturbing for complete coagulation.

When coagulation is complete, the tanks or pans should be flooded with water and left until machining starts. Since coagulum having all desirable qualities is very soft, it is easily deformed by careless handling. Excessive handling of the coagulum should be avoided as much as possible. In case of coagulation in tanks, a chute conveys the coagulum from the tanks to the sheeting battery. The coagulum can be floated directly from tanks. In other cases, it is to be lifted and placed in the chute, when pans are used for coagulation, the coagulum should be detached at the edges and carefully lifted from both sides of the pan.

MILLING

Hand or power-operated machines can be used for milling coagulum into sheets. One end of the coagulum is hand kneaded and passed through the first machine three or four times, the spaces between the rolls slightly decreasing each time. After this, the sheet is finally passed through the machine with grooved rolls whose nip is adjusted to give sheets of 2.5 mm thickness.

To handle large sheets, it is desirable to use a battery of rollers with set spacing. The sheets should successively pass from one machine to another. During machining, the water must be sprayed liberally over the sheets to remove the serum, excess acid and other soluble impurities. Sheeting machines are usually provided with water spray. In case this is not provided, the sheets are placed in a washing tank, and washed well in running water. The sheets are cut into a uniform length on a cutting table.

Source: DA, photo courtesy of www.panoramio.com

Goat Raising

The optimum potential of goat as one the main sources of milk and meat has not been fully tapped in the Philippines. The goat is popularly known as the poor man’s cow because children and old folks who cannot afford cow’s milk prefer drinking goat’s milk. Aside from being cheap, goat’s milk is more digestible compared to cow’s milk.

The goat is a clean animal and its male odor is only present during the breeding season. Female goat does not smell. Contrary to myth, goats do not eat trash. They do, however, lick the labels of tin cans to taste glue on the label’s back.

Goat raising is undertaken commonly by small farmers or backyard raisers. A farmer raises an average of one to two head goats. Only a handful of commercial-scale goat farms can be found in the country.

As of 2000, goat population is estimated to be 3,125,556 compared to the 1995 population of 2,981,900 that shows an average annual increase 2.57 percent.

In a study conducted by a government agency, it was found out that goats are multi-purpose ruminants producing 58.4% milk, 35.6% meat, 4.3% hide, and 1.7% fiber. According to them, these small ruminants can provide the answer to improve nutritional requirements of the predominantly rural farm families scattered all over the archipelago.

Kinds of Goat

Anglo Nubian Goats

Basically a tropical breed that was successfully adapted in the western countries. Its distinguishing features include drooping and pendulous ears, and a brown hair or a combination of brown and black. It has a long body that usually weighs 70-90 kilograms at mature age and produces 1-21 liters of milk daily.

Boer Goats

A meat type breed with distinct white body color and usually black or reddish brown from rear legs to the head. The goat weighs an average of 90 kilograms at mature age.

Saanen Goats

Originated from Switzerland, is a pure white to off-white in color. It holds the distinction as the highest milk producer (1.8 liters daily), and weighs an average of 70 kilograms.

Toggenburg Goats

Also from Switzerland, have distinct white markings on the face, legs and tail and an erect ears like the Saanen. Milk production averages 1.5 liters daily..

This duck assumes very erect normal postures which are almost straight neck. The back is long, straight and narrow. An adult weighs about 2.10kg while an adult duck weigh about 1.8 kg. The egg production characteristics of this breed resemble that of the Khaki Campbell.

Alpine Goats

Also of European breed has a color that ranges from off-white to red, to black. An alert breed of medium to large size, it weighs 70 kilograms at mature age. It posses upright ears and straight face, the breed produces 1.5 liters of milk daily.

Native Goats

The breed are small, stocky and low-set. Colors range from red, white or black or a combination of these colors. Milk production is just enough for its kids. It weighs 20 to 30 kilograms at mature age.

Goat Housing

Whether on range or confined feeding, housing provisions are necessary. A goat house or shed must be built to provide shelter. Goats are afraid of rain and wetness as these make them prone to pneumonia. They also prefer sleeping in elevated flat forms like a stair type arrangement. It must be well ventilated and drained and easy to clean. Feeding racks (silage, water, mineral and concentrate) should be accessible to both animals and caretaker, preferably in the front of the aisle. Flooring should be provided and elevated at least 15 degrees to facilitate cleaning and drainage.

Separate pens should be provided for lactating and dry does, kids, growers and bucks. The buck pen should be visible to breeding does yet far enough to avoid transfer of the typical goat smell especially to lactating does when milk is to be sold.

A fenced loafing area beside the goat house must be provided (100 to 150 sqm/250 head), complete with feeding racks and water troughs to allow animals to loaf freely. Flooring of the area must be cemented to facilitate drying. Cogon and nipa as roof materials are preferred in hot and humid areas.

Ventilation is of outmost importance. Majority of pneumonia cases can be traced to excessively warm and humid interior and sudden changes in temperature. Allow a 0.5 to 1 feet clearance between floor to wall and wall to beam to create an adequate circulation and to lower draft. It is desirable to maintain an interior temperature of 28 to 30°C. It has been established that above 30°C ruminants are inhibited from eating.

Lighting may also be provided in the barns during the night. Goats consume up to 30% of the day’s intake during the night when light is provided.

Fencing

Nine-eye hog wire is the cheapest and most effective fencing available locally. Posts must be staked every 2 meters. Goats are fond of pounding their feet and scraping their bodies on the fences so it must be sturdily built. Barbwire fencing requires a minimum of four strands so it becomes more costly besides making goats prone to wounds.

Selection and Mating

Does Selection Criteria

• Does should be purchased from a locality or area with similar climatic conditions;
• Native or graded does should not be less than 25 kilograms;
• Udder should be palpated for size, detection of lumps and other abnormalities;
• Teats should be uniform at length and large enough for easy milking;
• It must have a good appetite, possessing alert eyes and well formed pupils; and
• Do not buy breeders from markets.
Bucks Selection Criteria

• One year old breeder or buck that have successfully mated once is desirable;
• Acquired buck should be accompanied by pedigree records;
• It must have a good producing line based from farm records;
• Muck must come from doe with high twinning rate;
• Buck must be active and ready to breed in-heat doe; and
• Replace buck, preferably, every three (3) years.

Breeding

Does reach puberty from 4 to 18 months. Best breeding age will be 10 to 12 months, depending on desired weight. Limit yearling buck services to 25 doe services/year. Older bucks can cover up to 75/year. Buck to doe ratio is 1:25.

Breeding – Reproductive Characteristics of Goats

Age of puberty: 4-8 months
Cycle of type: Polyestrus
Cycle length: 18-21 days
Duration of heat: 2-3 days (secondary heat: 8-12 days after)
Gestation period: 150 (+/-) 5 days
Best breeding time: Daily during estrus

Breeding – signs of Heat or Estrus

• Mucus discharge from the vulva, causing matting of tail hair.
• Uneasiness, constant urination, lack of appetite and bleating.
• Seeks out or stays near the buck and lets herself be mounted.

When breeding, always introduce the doe to the buck, not to the doe herd particularly when bucks have not been used for a long time. It will be dangerous to mix the buck with an herd of pregnant does for they will breed indiscriminately. Two or four breedings during the heat period will suffice.

It is highly impractical if not economical to raise pure breed goats, unless the main purpose is to sell breeders. The preferred method will be to upgrade local native or grade does with pure bucks. Crossbreeds usually perform better than pure ones under local conditions. Infusion of two or more bloodlines into the native doe will elicit a better product due to hybrid vigor. Three-way crosses between the native, any of three Occidental breeds and the Nubian has produced a greatly superior animal than any of the three under our conditions.

Higher milk production should be the main consideration for it will not only mean bigger kid but also more milk for human consumption. A maximum infusion of 75% foreign bloodline must be observed to retain the natural resistance of the native. Never practice inbreeding unless fully knowledgeable in breeding techniques. On the other hand, intensive culling especially in milking herds, will largely be beneficial.

Dystocia is very common in crossing natives with large pure breeds due to the invariably large size of the unborn kids. Crossbreed birthweights of up to four (4) kilos for multiple births and up to six (6) kilos for single births have been observed while native birthweights reach only 2 to 4 kilos for multiple and single births, respectively. Thus, in crossbreeding, large native does with a minimum weight of 25 kilos or more and those that have given birth at least once, should be used. Providing human assistance during birth will also be of help in saving kids, but this should be done only when necessary.

Anestrus or failure to come in heat, is a common problem most particularly with high-producing does. Vitamin, mineral and other nutrient deficiencies, infections of the genital tract and hormone deficiencies are some of the various and implants and pregnant mare serum (PMS have been used with varying rates of success.

Routine administration of oxytocin right after kidding and before weaning (5 days) aids in faster expulsion of the placenta, uterine fluids and in the rapid regression of the uterus. Routine Vitamin A, D and E injections to breeding herds also contribute to reproductive well being.

Fifty percent of breeding problems can be traced to the buck used. Routine check up of the bucks’ health condition, especially of the genito-urinary tract, should be done. Preputial scraping, blood tests and sperm motility tests are some very useful procedures to follow in successful buck management. Always consult a trained veterinarian to do these tests.
Breeding – Procedures in Artificial Insemination

1. Keep the semen warm for it is extremely temperature sensitive and will be irrevocably damaged if improperly handled. Never allow the temperature of semen thawed in 95°F water to drop below 80°F. If at all possible, perform your insemination in a heated environment. Thoroughly pre-warm the inseminating gun before inserting the straw. If no heated facility is available, use a heating pad or hot water bottle to keep the semen and related equipment at the proper temperature before use.

2. Inseminate at the proper time, as most successful inseminators agree that conception rates are generally highest when breeding during the later third of standing heat. In our experience, breeding a doe approximately 6 – 10 hours before she goes out of standing heat has yielded the best results. During the main part of the breeding season and with most does, this means breeding approximately 24-30 hours after the onset of estrus.

3. Always deposit semen deep intracervically by measuring the depth of penetration of the breeding gun. After passing through several cervical rings, place a clean breeding sheath in the speculum alongside the gun with its tip against the back wall of the does’ vagina. Compare the difference between the length of the two breeding sheaths. Ideal depth of penetration is approximately 1 ½ inches.

4. Use only one straw per breeding as research in goat production indicates that sperm cells introduced into the does’ reproductive tract tend to form “colonies” in the mucous present in the folds of the cervix. After undergoing a short maturation process, they migrate in fairly constant number from the cervix into the uterus and ultimately on to the oviduct, where union of the egg actually occurs. Quantities of viable sperm cells sufficient for adequate fertilization should remain in the reproductive tract for up to 18 hours after the first insemination.

The use of a second straw of semen later in heat can cause a disruption in the orderly migration of mature sperm cells from the colonies already established in the cervix and actually reduces the chance of conception.

5. Avoid attempting to AI does who remain in standing heat longer than 48 hours for reasons not fully understood, does exhibiting extremely lengthy standing estrus generally fail to conceive when artificially inseminated. Abnormally long heats are more common early in the breeding season, and occur more frequently in some areas than others. Fortunately in most cases the condition is transitory and most does begin to exhibit more normal estrus behavior as the breeding season progresses.

6. Use of hormones to synchronize does, though successful and useful, may result in lowered conception rates. Many breeders have reported disappointing AI conception rates after having used hormones to induce estrus in goats. If it is necessary to synchronize a group of does in this way, wait until the first natural heat after the drug induced estrus before artificially inseminating. Be aware that the use of prostaglandins may cause erratic estrus behavior in some animals, which can persist for several months.

7. Deposit semen very slowly because rapid expulsion of semen from the breeding gun can damage sperm cells and cause irritation of the does’ reproductive tract. Count to fifteen very slowly while depressing the plunger on the breeding gun.

8. Don’t haul a doe in heat to have her bred via AI. If you do not have your own equipment or storage tank and must transport your does to have them bred, plan to board them several days before they are due to come into heat. It is probably preferable if you cannot breed your own does yourself to have an AI technician come to your farm to perform the insemination. You can do your own inseminating even if you do not own your own tank. Small quantities of semen can be transported and stored for a half day or longer in a stainless steel thermos bottle. Make sure that you do not screw the lid onto the thermos as possible rupture can occur as a result of nitrogen gas pressure.

9. For best conception rates, inseminate only does with regularly occurring heats and no history of breeding or kidding problems. Does that are difficult to settle by natural service are not good AI candidates. Proper nutritional management also pays a big role in reproductive efficiency. Does that are overly fat or thin are less than ideal prospects for AI breeding. Virgin does should present no problem so long as they weigh at least 75 lbs.

10. Don’t attempt to AI a doe on her first heat cycle of the season – the first heat cycle of the year is often infertile and is frequently followed by a second heat 5 to 8 days later. Conception rates will usually be higher if you wait until the second or later heats to do your breeding. Likewise, conception rates may drop off if you attempt AI towards the very end of the normal breeding season.

11. Watch your does carefully 17 to 22 days after breeding them by AI for some reason that some does who conceive by AI experience a false heat three weeks later. Although they may exhibit otherwise typical estrus behavior, such does will seldom allow a buck to mount them. If in doubt, submit a milk or blood sample to a testing laboratory for a progesterone assay.

12. Keep detailed records of your AI breeding. Note such factors as color and consistency of cervical mucous, depth and relative difficulty or cervical penetration, length of standing heat both before and after inseminating, weather conditions, time required to complete the insemination, and other pertinent information. These records will often be of great help in explaining why some does settle and others did not.

13. Know your does. Chart the heat cycles of each of your animals on a calendar. Observe them at least three times daily during the breeding seasons for signs of estrus behavior. Note the number of hours that each does remains in standing heat, and the relative intensity of estrus activities such as flagging, fighting and mounting other does.

14. Observe proper sanitary procedures. Specula should be thoroughly washed and sanitized between use. Scrub the doe’s external genitalia with soap and water and dry completely before inserting the speculum. Do not use iodine-based products, as iodine is spermicidal. Take care not to touch the part of the speculum or breeding sheath which is inserted in the doe’s vagina.

15. Attend an AI school. Attendance at an AI school taught by a competent and knowledgeable instructor can increase your chances of success with AI. As with any other acquired skill, hands-on experience is the best way to develop the confidence and correct techniques necessary to use AI effectively.

16. Do your homework. Artificial insemination is only a tool, albeit a powerful one. To be really successful with AI, you have to do more than just put kids on the ground. Only through intelligent selection of sires compatible with the objectives of a carefully thought out breeding program can AI benefit you, the breeder, or the meat and dairy goat industry.

Feeding Practices

Feed duckling with wet starter mash for 8 weeks. Native ducklings raised the native way are fed moistened boiled rice for the first 33 weeks, 4 to 5 times a day. During the first few days, give feed at night. Start giving water in drinking trough or drinking fountains on the 2nd day. On the fifth day, add finely chopped small shrimps to boiled rice. Increase their feed as duckling grows.

At the age of one month, feed ducklings with tiny fresh water snails and boiled unhulled rice or palay. Give only enough feed to be consumed as they tend to spoil when left long in the troughs.

Mash feed for ducklings is composed of corn, soybean meal fish meal dried whey rice bran with oyster shell and bone meal with vitamin mineral supplements. Feed one day to six (6) weeks old ducklings with starter mash with 21% crude protein for six (60) to four (4) month old duckling with grower mash with 16% crude protein and four (4) months old ducks and above with layer mash or ratio with 16% crude protein.

If mash feed is preferred give only enough to be consumed quickly at one time to ten (10) to 15 minutes. Wet mash tends to spoil when left long in hoppers. If feeds is given at intervals, ducklings learn to eat more readily and their appetites are developed to stuff themselves in between drinks, digest food quickly and be ready to eat their fill for the next feeding time.

Four to five feeding a day are sufficient for ducklings over 2 weeks old. Provide plenty of clean fresh water as ducks drink after every mouthful of food.

Ducks are wasteful and slovenly while feeding. Provide proper and adequate feeding hoopers to prevent much waste of food.

Fine gravel of grit is necessary to growing ducks to help them grind their feed. After the 5th week give green feed such as chopped leaves of kangkong camote ipil ipil and legumes at least three (3) times a day 10grams of chopped green leaves per duck per day.

Care and Health Practices

Care of Dry and Pregnant Doe

If the doe is being milked, dry (stop milking) at least 1 to 2 months before kidding date. This will give her enough reserve for the next lactation.

Put all dry does in one compartment. One week before kidding, place her in a separate kidding pen. This can be predicted by swelling and discharge from the vulva, engorgement and waxing of the teats and constant laying down of the doe.

Avoid any form of noise in the kidding area. Sometimes it is necessary to help the pregnant doe during kidding, especially native does bred with pure bucks, because the kids are bigger. Dystocia or difficult delivery is common in these cases. Be sure that the presentation is right before attempting to pullout the kid. In anterior presentation, both front legs and heads are presented and in posterior presentation, both hind limbs come out at the same time. Oversized kids should be pulled out with an even, continuous pressure. In difficult cases, it is best a practicing veterinarian.

Care of the Lactating Doe and Newborn Kids

Immediately after delivery, wipe the kid’s mouth, nose and body with a clean, dry cloth and massage the thoracic area to initiate breathing.

Normally, the mother does this, but sometimes the mother is too weak to do it. Be sure no mucus is clogging the airways. The kids must be able to suck within one hour. For very weak kids, feeding colostrum through a stomach tube usually produces dramatic results.

First time mother some time are reluctant to suckle their young due to udder pain caused by over engorgement of milk. Restraining the doe for the first suckling will usually relieve udder pain. If colostrum in the udder is not fully consumed by the kid, stripping (manually milking out excess) will be necessary to prevent mastitis. The placenta must come out within 24 hours from expulsion of the fetus.

Tie the umbilical cord with a sterile string and apply disinfectant. Allow the kids to suckle for the first 4 to 5 days.

If the doe is to be milked, separate the kids from the mother and start feeding using a baby bottle (8 oz. size) and refer to feeding guide for dosage.

If the doe is not to be milked, the doe can be taken out of the pen for feeding and returned to the kid three times a day and the whole night. This method will ensure greater livability to the kid by not exposing it to the elements, and proper feeding of the doe. Does weaned early (4 to 5 days) usually return to heat after 1 to 2 months.

When the doe comes into heat, introduce it to the buck, not vice-versa. Two services a day for two days is an optimum. If the doe does not conceive, heat may return in 8 to 12 days. Higher conception is accomplished in the secondary heat. If breeding is successful, milk production drops after one month and the right side of the abdomen starts to fill up.

• Milking

Goat Milking periods must be established and strictly adhered. If goat milking is done twice a day, e.g. 6 AM and 6 PM, the process should not be delayed or advanced. Possibly, same personnel should be used. Goats can withhold milk, so unnecessary changes in the routine should be avoided

• Milk quickly and continuously

Goat Milk let down can be initiated by washing the udder with lukewarm water and wiping with a clean towel. All milking utensils, especially the milkers’ hands must be thoroughly cleaned.

• Feed concentrates during milking

This serves as incentive to the goats for them to enjoy and look forward. Contrary to popular belief, properly drawn and processed goat milk have no offending smell. During milking, the buck should not be near the doe to avoid transfer of the typical goat smell to the milk.

Care of the Weanling and the Growing Kids

Place all weaned kids in a separate pen, and if possible, according to size. If male kids are to be raised for meat, castrate as early as possible, preferably within the first month. If females are to be raised for milking, check for excess teats and have them removed. Horn buds usually appear within the first to third month. De-horn when buds reach the size of a fingernail. Separate males and females at the age of four months. Goats sometimes reach puberty at this age.

Start breeding females at 8 to 10 months. Bucks can start breeding at the same age.

Care of the Breeding Buck

The breeding buck must always be confined separately but always visible to the does. The buck is the source of the typical goat smell such that direct contact with the doe must be avoided. Provide a loafing area. One to two years old buck can make 25 to 50 doe services a year, an older buck more.

References: Livestock Development Council (LDC)